Irish Grammar — Quick Reference

Constructs, Concepts & Vocabulary

Sentence Structure

Struchtúr na n-abairtí

Irish sentences are not constructed in the same way as English ones. This is because there are some major differences between the two languages (and also some simularities):

Word Order

Ord na bhfocal

English Word Order: Subject Verb Object (SVO). (E.g. Seán wrote a book)

Irish Word Order: Verb Subject Object (VSO). (E.g. Scríobh Seán leabhair)
Longer Word Order: Verb Subject Object Time Place Manner
(E.g. Dénann sé a hobair bhaile chuile lá sa chistin go ciúin)

'Tá' vs. 'Is'

There are 2 Forms of Bí (to be):

Tá

Tá mé adjective
Tá mé action [object]
Tá mé preposition object

Objects are usually either nouns or pronouns

Nouns are described by adjectives. In Irish, those adjectives come after the noun (unlike in English).
E.g. Uisce naofa (Holy water)

Actions are usually verbal nouns (~ing in English):
Ag <verb>
E.g. ag rith (running), ag ithe (eating), ag spaisteoireacht (ambling)

Rules: Tá is the present tense of the irregular verb 'bí' (to be). It can be used in all tenses but changes form for each tense (e.g. past tense is 'bhí'). See 'Grammar Rules' for more information on irregular verbs.

Classification: Is noun me.
Ownership: Is leis é
Identification: Is Garda Íde / Is í Íde an Garda.

Rules:
If reported, 'is' ⇒ 'gur
Emphaphise the pronoun immediately after 'is': E.g. Is mise an múinteoir. Is iadsan na gadaíthe.
The past tense of 'is' is 'ba'.

Optional pronoun: Is duine deas (é) an priomhoide.
The personal pronoun (é) is not necessary, but when the subject:

is the name of a person/place/country/language
has the word 'an' or 'na' on front of it
has a possesive article (e.g. mo, do, bhur) right before it

you can add it. E.g. both of these are correct:
Is cathair álainn Gaillimh / Is cathair álainn é Gaillimh

The article

An tAlt

In English, we use 'a' as the indefinite article. In other words, we use the word 'a' in a sentence to make it indefinite.
E.g. 'I am a student'' is indefinite because it is not specific, whereas 'I am your manager'' is definite.

In Irish, there is no indefinite article, so you basically say 'I am student' (Is scoláire mé).
For the 2nd (definite) example, you would say Is mise do bhainisteoir (Literally 'It is me, your manager').

The definite article in Irish is 'an'.
The plural definite article in Irish is 'na'.

These mutate the following noun:

	┌ Single ┐		┌ Plural ┐
Article	Masc	Fem	Masc	Fem
an	t-vowel	Lenition ts	-	-
na	-	-	hVowel	hVowel

Negatives

Diúltacha

In English, we use 'not' to make a sentence negative. In Irish, we use 'ní' (or 'níor' for past tense) to make a sentence negative.
E.g. 'I am not a student' is 'Ní scoláire mé'.
and 'I was not a student' is '>Níor scoláire mé'.

Asking Questions

Ag cur ceisteanna (ar dhuine)

In English, we use question words like 'what', 'where', 'when', 'why', and 'how' to ask questions. In Irish, we use similar words, in sentences that are close to the structure of English.

Cad (what) - Cad é d'ainm? (What is your name?)
Cá (where) - Cá bhfuil do mhála? (Where is your bag?)
Cathain (when) - Cathain a d'imigh tú? (When did you go?) / Cén am a d'imigh tú? (What time did you go?)
Cén fáth (why) - Cén fáth a rachaidh tú? (Which reason will you go?)
Conas (how) - Conas a raibh sé? (How was it?)

Word order: Word Nerd
Ord na bhfocal

English:

Question Word + Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object.

e.g. What did he say to you?

Irish:

Question Word + a + Verb + Subject + Object.

e.g. Cad a dúirt sé duit?

Note: The auxiliary verb is not used in Irish but the 'relative particle' ('a') is used to show the relationship between the question word and the rest of the sentence.

Adding more verbs
You can ask questions about actions in 2 different ways:

Option 1:
English:

Question word + subject + main verb + ancillary verb + [optional preposition] + object?

e.g. Do you like to play music?
or Do you like to listen to music?

Irish:

Question word + verb + preposition pronoun + object + a + ancillary verb.

e.g. An maith leat ceol a seinm?
Note: 2nd example (to listen to) has no Irish equivalent - you would use option 2 instead.

Option 2:

English:

Question word subject main verb verbal noun optional preposition object?

e.g. Do you like playing music?
or: Do you like listening to music?

Irish:

Question word + Verb + Prepositional Pronoun + a + Auxillary Verb + Verbal Noun + Optional preposition + (Genitive) object?

e.g. An maith leat a bheith ag seinm ceoil?
or An maith leat a bheith ag éisteacht le ceoil?

Word Nerd

Answering Questions

Ag freagairt ceisteanna

If the answer to the queston is 'It is', you can say sea (or ní hea, if it is not).
If it's anything else, use tá - but not on its own.
Q. An bhfuil Ciara ar an mbus?
A. Tá sí / Níl sí

If there is a verb in the question, use the verb to affirm or deny
Q. An dtuigeann tú?
A. Tuigim / Ní thuigim.

Capital Letters
In Irish, capital letters are used for:

The first letter of a sentence
Day and Month names (e.g. Inniu an Luan, an triú lá i mí an Mhárta)
Times of the year (e.g. Lá Fhéile Pádraig, an Cáisc, an Nollaig)
Proper nouns (ainmfhocail dílis) - names of people, places, etc.
Titles before Proper nouns (an Dochtúir Seán Ó'Briain)
Geographical places - the names of Countries, Rivers, Mountains, Cities, Towns, Villages
Names of Government Departments, Universities, and State Companies (e.g. an Roinn Oideacheas agus Scileanna)
Prayer names (e.g. an Ghlóir [Gloria], and Choróin Mhuire [Rosary]

Names

Forenames

Céadainmneacha

People's names change when you're addressing them directly (vocative case) or indicating posession (gentitive case).

Vocative & Genetive:
(Names mutate the exact same way in both)

Female: <Lenition>
(E.g. Cá bhfuil tú, a Mháire / Teach Shinéad)

Male: <Lenition> + B ⇒ S
(E.g. Cá bhfuil tú, a Sheáin / Teach Phádraig

Surnames

Sloinnte

Surnames change from masculine to feminine. They also change in the vocative case & gentitive case.

Male	Female
Mac ...	Daughter: Nic <lenition>^* Wife: Mhic <lenition>
Ó <hVowel>	Daughter: Ní <lenition> Wife: Uí <lenition> (No <hVowel>)
No mutation (e.g. Breathnach)	<Lenition> (e.g. Bhreathnach)
De ...	no change

Vocative & Genetive:
(Names mutate the exact same way in both)

Male: Ó ⇒ Uí + <Lenition> + ~~hVowel~~
Female: No change

Male: Mac ⇒ Mhic + <Lenition>^*
Female: No change

^*Do not lenite surnames with Mac C~. E.g. Mac Mathúna ⇒ Mhic Mhathúna but Mac Cártaigh ⇒ Mhic Cártaigh

Directions

Giving Directions

Ag tabhairt treoracha

Coinnigh / lean ort díreach (Keep going straight)
díreach ar aghaidh (Straight ahead)
lean an bóthar (Follow the road)

ar an taobh clé (on the left)
cas ar chlé (Turn right)

ar an taobh dheis (on the right)
cas ar dheis (Turn left)

Arrow pointing north, south, east, and west

taobh thiar duit (behind you)
déan iompú thart (Make a U-turn)
cas thart (Turn around)
téigh ar ais an bealach ar tháinig tú (Go back the way you came)
tar ar ais (Come back)

Related terminology:

ag na soilse tráchta in aice leis an mbanc (at the traffic lights beside the bank)
ag an gcros-bhóthar (at the crossroads)
timpeallán (roundabout)
beidh tú ann i gceann cúig nóiméid (you'll be there in 5 minutes)

Describing Direction

stairs: thuas / thíos staighre (up / down stairs) - ag dul síos / suas (going down / up) - ag teacht anuas / aníos (coming down / up)

Position: Tá sé amuigh / istigh / thuas staighre
Direction: Ag dul amach / isteach / suas staighre / deiseal (clockwise) / tuathal (anti-clockwise)

🧭	North	South	East	West
-	thuaidh	theas	thoir	thiar
An	Tuaisceart	Deisceart	tOirthear	tIarthar
sa	dtuaisceart	deisceart	-	-
san	-	-	oirthear	iarthar
ag dul	ó thuaidh	ó dheas	soir	siar
ag teacht	aduaidh	aneas	anoir	aniar

↻ Deisealach (adverb: clockwise but also right-handed / towards the right / dexterous / tidy).

↺ Tuathalach (adverb: anti-clockwise but also towards the left / sinister).

Numbers

Counting

Ag comhaireamh

E.g. Hide and Seek: a <hVowel> "a náid, a hAon, a dó, ... a hOcht"

Cardinal Numbers

Bunuimhreacha

For nouns.

Mutations:
Aon, 2-6: Lenition
7-10: Eclipsis

Examples:

0: Níl Bád ar bith | Níl aon bád
1: Bád amháin | aon bhád (amháin)
2-6: [dhá | trí | ceithre | cúig | sé] bhád
7-10: [seacht | ocht | naoi | deich] mbád
11-19 X bád déag
20 Fiche bá | Scór bád
21, 31, 41, etc. Aon bh&ad is fiche / tríocha / ceathracha.
(or) Caoga a haon bhád
22-99 dhá bhád is fiche | fiche a dó bhád - nócha a naoi mbád
30, 40, 50, etc. tríocha, dachaid/ceathracha, caoga, seasca, seachtó, ochtó nócha, céad, míle, milliún
100-120 Céad is a [haon, dó trí | ceathair | cúig | sé] bhád

120+ Céad dachaid a haon bád / Céad tríocha seacht mbád / Céad caoga bád
1000+ Míle dhá céad (is a) seasca dó bhád

Note:
When specifying numbers, the noun is singular.
E.g. seacht n-úll (not n-úlla)

Exceptions:

1 (~ amháin)	2 (dhá ~)	3-6 ~	7-10 ~
Bliain	bhliain	bliana	mbliana
Ceann	cheann	cinn	gcinn
Seachtain	sheachtain	seachtaine	seachtaine
Uair	dhá uair	huaire	n-uaire
Pingin	phingin	phingine	bpingine
€ or ¢	Never mutate (5 euro, 7 cent déag)

Ordinal Numbers

Orduimhreacha

For describing something's position in order.

Mutations

An followed by:

1st chéad <Lenition>
(but do not lenite t~, d~, or s~)

2+ Number as below + hVowel

2nd dara
3rd tríú
4th ceathrú
5th cúigú
6th séú
7th seachtú
8th t-ochtú
9th naoú
10th deichiú
11th t-aonú huimhir déag
12th dara lá déág
13th triú bean déag
20th fichiú
21st t-aonú háit is fiche
30th tríochadú
40th daicheadú / ceathrachadú
50th caogadú
60th seascadú
70th seachtódú
80th ochtódú
90th nóchadú
100th céadú
1000th míliú

Personal Numbers

Uimhreacha Pearsanta

For numbering people.

1: duine amháin
2: beirt <Lenition>
(Do not lenite t~, d~, or s~)
3: triúr
4: ceathrar
5: cúigear
6: seisear
7: seachtar
8: ochtar
9: naonúr
10: deichnúir
11: aon duine dhéag
12: dáréag
Revert to normal cardinal numbers:
13: trí chara dhéag
17: seacht gcara déag
20/30: fiche/tríocha cara déag
56: sé chara is caoga

Personal Number Mutations
Athrú na n-uimhreacha pearsanta

Nouns: Gen. plural
E.g. Beirt bhan,
Trúir buachaillí (m3),
ceathrar gasúr (m1),
cúigear cailíní (m4),
seisear fear

(See 'Grammar Rules' for more on the genetive case)

Déag / Dhéag

Only lenite if the noun being counted ends with a vowel (except for 'lá')

Days of the Week

Ar an Aoine (on a Friday / on Fridays)
Inniú an Aoine (today is Friday)
An Aoine ina dhiadh sin (the following Friday)

Dé hAoine seo chugainn (next Friday)
Oíche de hAoine (Friday Night)

a/the <Day>	next/last/of <Day>
an Luan	Dé Luan
an Mháirt	Dé Máirt
an Chéadaoin	Dé Céadaoin
an Déardaoin	Déardaoin
an Aoine	Dé hAoine
an Satharn	Dé Sathairn
an Domhanach	Dé Domhnaigh

Dates

Format:
<Ordinal Number> lá de mhí <gen. month>

(E.g. An triú lá déag de mhí Iúil)

Month	Gen. Month
Eanair	<same>
Feabhra	<same>
Márta	an Mhárta
Aibreán	Aibreáin
Bealtaine	na Bealtaine
Meitheamh	an Meithimh
Iúil	<same>
Lúnasa	<same>
Meán Fómhair	Mheán Fómhair
Deireadh Fómhair	Dheireadh Fómhair
Samhain	na Samhna
Nollaig	na Nollaig

Time

Telling the time:

Tá sé a haon (a dó) a chlog.
Cúig [nóiméad] go dtí a trí (2:55)
Deich [nóiméad] i ndiadh a sé (6:10)
Ceathrú [go dtí / chun] a dó (1:45)
Leathuair [tar éis / i ndiadh] a seacht (7:30)
Cúig nóiméad is fiche chun a dó dhéag (11:35)
ar maidin / sa thráthnóna / san oíche (AM / PM)
Meánlae (midday / noon)
Meánoíche (midnight)

Example: --:--

Q. Cén t-am é?
A. Tá sé ....

Adverbs of Time

Place these after a verb to indicate when they happen:

anois (now)

amárach (tomorrow)

anuraidh (last year)

ar maidin (in the morning)

fadó (long ago)

feasta (from now on)

fós / go fóill (still)

inné (yesterday)

inniu (today)

láithreach (immediately / currently)

an seachtain seo caite (last week)

Dé Máirt seo chugainn (next Tuesday)

Never: Past tense: riamh. Future: choíche.
Present habitual: Ní + lenited <Verb conjugation>.

Key Elements of Irish Grammar

Mutations

Athrú tosaigh

Lenition (shéimhiú)

Add a 'h' - E.g. mac ⇒ mhac

If female.
After mo, sa, céad, trí/tríd, gan, mar, a (masc. / direct relation), roimh, and ar (on).
After all prefixes (e.g. ró-), de(n), ó, thar, faoi, um (around/about), do(n) (your / to the), idir, aon (any / 1), and 2 - 6.

Mo says it's her 1st 3D gConamara river rodeo, Harvey. um ... do between 1 and 26

Also after some prepositions (e.g. 'do', 'faoi', 'gan').

Exceptions: St, L, N, R, Sm, Sp, Sc, t^*, d^*

St. Eleanor Smiled at Spanish School (today)

Eclipsis (urú)

b ⇒ mb c ⇒ gc d ⇒ nd^* f ⇒ bhf g ⇒ ng; p ⇒ bp t ⇒ dt^*

n-vowel (if last letter of previous word is not 'n').

After cá, any preposition followed by an (e.g. ar an mbord), i(n), san go (in reported speech - e.g. dúirt sé go mbeadh ...), 7 - 10, mura (if not), and sula (before).

Where Annie and Ann in San (Fran) go @ 7-10, if not before

Also after prepositions + 'an' or the preposition 'i' (in). . E.g. i bhfad / ag an mbord.
or possesive plurals (ár/bhur). E.g. ár bpáistí, bhur gcairde, ár mbord, bhur n-ainmneacha.
or in genetive case plurals (an tuiseal ginideach). E.g. Ag dul as/ó aithne na ndaoine (changing beyond recognition).
and indirect relations ('a') (not the verb's subject or object). E.g. An scoil a mbím ag obair inti.

t-prefix

Consonants (ts):
Feminine (common case)
Masculine (genitive case)

Exceptions: St Sp Sc Sm Sf Stupid Spanish School Smells sFunny

Also, s[vowel | l | n | r] ⇒ ts after 'an'. (e.g. an tsaol, don tsagart, an tsliotar, sa tsnáithaid [needle], an tsráid)

Vowels (t-vowel):
Singular Masculine nouns after 'an'. (e.g. an t-athair)

Hyphens: Use a hyphen after the 't' if the word has a lower-case letter. If it has a capital letter, or starts with 's', don't use a hyphen (e.g. an tAlbanach / an tSionainn / an tsagart).

hVowel

There are 2 sets of rules, governing hVowels:

Cole's Ruleset (#1): Applies to:

Anything after Cé.
Passive forms of verbs (after particles that end with a vowel).
Nouns after 'le' (with) and 'go' (to).
After Ní & Ná.
Adjectives after 'chomh' and 'le', when comparing.
(e.g. chomh hóg le h-iadsan)

OK, pass me the Lego Ambulance, Cole.

Related note: 'go' + hVowel makes a type of adverb - e.g. go hard (highly), go holc (badly), go híontach (wonderfully).

Jen's Ruleset (#2): Applies to:

Masculine & feminine plurals (common case).
Plural nouns after a preposition.
Feminine after possesive pronouns (a)
(e.g. cailíní a hitheann - girls who, a hiníon - her daughter).
Feminine single (genitive case).

They propose to Girls who are Single, Jen.

n-Vowel

Used whenever you would use Eclipsis (urú) but the word starts with a vowel (tír na n-óg).
Can be left out if the preceeding word ends in 'n' (e.g. an ag an aonoch - at the fair).
Most prepositions cause an n-Vowel
(except for the ones that mean 'in', 'to', 'from', 'under', and 'without' - i, do, go, ó, faoi, gan).
Also used after a when it indicates plural possession (their) or else an indirect relation (that).
After ár (our - e.g. ár n-athair).

Trigger words

Trigger Word	Lenition	Eclipsis
After 'nach'	-	✔
After 'an'	-	✔
After 'go'	-	✔
Past tense	✔	-
After 'ar'	✔	-
After 'ní'	✔	-
After 'a'	✔	-

Knock an(d) go past (n)arnia

^*'t' and 'd' do not mutate if after 'an' or words ending in 't', 'd', or 'n'.

Nouns and Plurals

Noun Genders:

Masculine Nouns Ainmfhocail Firinscneach	Feminine Nouns Ainmfhocail Baininscneach
Ends in a broad consonant (normally)	Ends in slender consonant (normally)
~ín	~óg
~óir	~eog
~éir	~lann
~eoir	~áil
~´n	~íl
~a (e.g. mála)	~íocht
~adh	-
~aire (e.g. iascaire)	-

Plurals:

Single Uimhir Uatha	Plural Uimhir Iolra	For example Mar shampla
1 syllable (mostly)	~a ~(e)anna	an bróg ⇒ na bróga an bláth ⇒ na bláthanna an scoil ⇒ na scoileanna
2 syllables (mostly)	~(e)acha	an tobar ⇒ na toibreacha
~a	~aí	an mála ⇒ na málaí
~e	~í	maide rámha ⇒ maidí rámha file ⇒ filí
~a~	~ai~	cat fiáin ⇒ cait fhiáne
~éa~	~éi~	féar ⇒ féir
~ea~	~i~	an fear ⇒ na fir an t-inneall ⇒ na hinnill
an	na	-
~ín	~íní	an t-ispín ⇒ na hispíní
~(e)oir	~(e)oirí	an cuairteoir ⇒ na cuairteoirí
~óir	~óirí	an bádóir ⇒ na bádóirí
~éir	~éirí	an tincéir ⇒ na tincéirí
~úir	~úirí	an saighdiúir ⇒ na saighdiúirí
~í	~íthe	rí ⇒ ríthe garraí ⇒ garraíthe
~aí	~aíthe	an amhránaí ⇒ na hamhránaithe an gadaí ⇒ na gadaithe (Use only when aí means 'er' in english)
~aoi	~aoithe	an saoi ⇒ na saoithe
~óg / ~eog	~óga / ~eoga	an duilleog ⇒ na duilleoga
~(i)[l\|n\|r]	~[l\|n\|r]ta	an ghlúin ⇒ na glúnta
~r	~rtha	faoi spéir liath ⇒ spéartha arda (under a grey sky ⇒ open skies)

Use Cardinal Numbers (bunuimhreacha) with nouns.

Mutations:
Aon, 2-6: Lenition
7-10: Eclipsis

Note:
When specifying numbers, the noun is singular. E.g. seacht n-úll (not n-úlla)

Verbal Nouns

Ainm Briathartha Word Nerd

These are not, as you might think, nouns that were derived from a verb (e.g. a walk / celebration / agreement / appearance / arrival / actor / building). Those are actually called nominalisations or sometimes diverbal nouns.

Verbal nouns are the equivalent of ~ing, in English.

Turning a verb into a VN

Use 'ag' + mutated form of the verb

General Rules:
1 syllable ⇒ ~(e)adh (e.g. ag briseadh / ag bogadh)
See below for exceptions

~aigh ⇒ ~ú (e.g. ag athrú)
Exceptions: ag ceannach / fiafraí / ionsaí.

~igh ⇒ ~iú (e.g. ag bailiú)
Exceptions: ag coinneáil / cloí / éirí / dúiseacht / imeacht / smaoineamh / suí.

~[ g | t ]ail ⇒ ~al (e.g. ag ceangal / ag freastal)

~ai[ l | n | ng ] ⇒ +t (e.g. ag baint / oscailt / seachaint / tarraingt )
~áin ⇒ +t (e.g. ag taispeáint)
~i[ r | n ] ⇒ ~t (e.g. ag freagairt / ag imirt / ag aithint)
~ig ⇒ +int (e.g. lig → ligint)

~[ á | ó | o | ú ]igh ⇒ ~~~igh~~ (e.g. báigh ⇒ bá / brúigh ⇒ ag brú / dóigh ⇒ ag dó / feoigh ⇒ ag feo)

Exceptions:

There are 4 groups of VN exceptions.
To remember them, think 'Students' - If a student does it, it's probably an exception.
Students (1) Go to School, (2) go to College, (3) go on Work Experience, or (4) go Interrailing:

School: Use the verb root (no changes) for:
All school activities, changing size, and selling imitation drink
~áil (e.g. pacáil, sábháil, stampáil)
[school activities] amharc (look), fóghlaim (learn), rith, scríobh, trácht (mention)
[changing size] at (swell), fás (grow), meath (wither)
[selling imitation drink] aithris (imitate), díol, ól

College: 1-Syllable Slender Verbs
Wash cars or educate yourself. Divide study into listening to lectures and extra reading Walk, don't run. If you fall you lose, throwing this opportunity away. Understand?
nigh (wash) ⇒ ag ní oil (educate) ⇒ ag oiliúint roinn (divide) ⇒ ag roinnt éist (listen) ⇒ ag éisteacht léigh (read) ⇒ ag léamh siúil (walk) ⇒ ag siúl tit (fall) ⇒ ag titim caill (lose) ⇒ ag cailleadh caith (throw) ⇒ ag caitheamh tuig (understand) ⇒ ag tuiscint

Work Experience: 1-Syllable Broad verbs
Stand close, stay put, ask questions or take your leave
seas (stand) ⇒ ag seasamh druid (close) ⇒ ag druidim fan (stay/wait) ⇒ ag fanacht cur (put) ⇒ ag curtha iarr (ask) ⇒ ag iarraidh tóg (take) ⇒ ag tógáil fág (leave) ⇒ ag fágáil

Interrailing
Travelling, carrying a backpack, enjoying the sun shine, and sleeping on hard beds, so you can tell everyone about it, later
teastil (travel) ⇒ ag teasteal iompaigh (carry/transport) ⇒ ag iompar taitin (shine. Taitin + le: enjoy) ⇒ ag taithneamh codail (sleep) ⇒ ag codladh cruaigh (harden) ⇒ ag cruchan inis (tell) ⇒ ag insint

Usage:

Tá subject + ag VN + (gen.) object
e.g. Tá sí ag múineadh na bpáistí

Tá subject + ag + object + a + VN
e.g. Tá sí ag na páistí a mhúineadh

also

Is breá liom a bheith ag VN + (gen.) object

VN + it / him / her / them

Never say 'Tá mé ag déanamh é' (I'm doing it).
Instead, leave the pronoun (object) out completely:

Tá mé á déanamh/dhéanamh/ndéanamh

Note: The VN mutates, depending on the missing object:
Masc: <Lenition> Fem: <h-vowel> Plural: <Eclipsis>

E.g. If learning a poem ('dán' - masc.), you would say:

Tá mé á fhoghlaim.

If you were learning multiple poems, you'd say

Tá me á bhfoghlaim.

Noun pre-fixes

Réimireanna ainmfhocail

an- (very), ais- (extra/re-), ard- (high/main), barr- (exceptionally), dea- (good), dian-(intensly), fíor-(truly), lán-(totally), meán-(middle/medium), mí-(un-), neamh-(un-), príomh-(main / primary), réamh-(before / pre), rí-(very), ró-(too), sár-(extremely), síor-(constant / eternal)

Rules:
(1) Always lenite the noun (add a séimhiú).
(2) Only use the '-' with an-, dea-, of if you're connecting to vowels.
E.g. ró-ard, róbheag, an-mhaith, le dea-mhian.

Noun Suffixes

Iarmhireanna ainmfhocail

Diminutive: ~án, ~ín, ~óg
(E.g. cnocán / teachín / bábóg)

Descriptive (~er in English): ~aire (teachtaire), ~amh (ollamh), ~(a)í (seanchaí), ~éir (súinéir Joiner), ~(e)óir (bádóir), ~úir (saighdiúir)

To create adjectives: ~ach (cnocach / sasanach), ~da (rúnda), ~ga (beoga), ~mhar (greannmhar / ciallmhar), ~ta (náisiúnta), ~lann (amharclann / bialann)

Adjectives

Aidiachtaí

Adjectives describe a noun.
In Irish, they appear after the noun (e.g. carr dearg).

Rules (Common Case)

Rules: Common / Nominative Case:

Eclipsis (Urú) after 2-19 if slender. E.g.
Lenition if:
- Female Noun / Genetive Male. E.g. Carraig Chrua / Oiche Mhaith
- Noun is lenited
Plurals:
1. Lenite when the plural noun ends with a slender consonant
  (e.g. boilg chomhréidh / na fir mhóra vs. cailíní móra láidre)
2. Add an 'a' to the end (if broad) or an 'e' (if slender)
  (e.g. scéal greannmhar ⇒ scéalta greannmhara)
3. ~vowel ⇒ No change
4. ~úil ⇒ ~úla
5. ~[l,n,r,mh]: ~~short vowel~~ in 2nd syllable + ln ⇒ ll
  (e.g. scéal barrúil ⇒ scéalta barrúla)

Creating Adjectives from Verbs (aka Verbal Adjectives)

Adjectives describe nouns (e.g. the strong man).
Verbal adjectives describe the noun after a verb has been applied to it (e.g. the stopped car)

Any verb can be turned into an adjective (e.g. to break → broken)

Rules: To create a verbal adjective:

~th ⇒ ~te
(e.g. caith ⇒ caite)
~igh ⇒ ~ite (1 syllable verbs)
(e.g. suigh ⇒ suite)
~igh ⇒ ~ithe (2 syllable verbs)
(e.g. ceannaigh ⇒ ceannaithe / imigh ⇒ imithe)
~[d | l | s | n | ch] ⇒ ~ta (B) / ~te (S)
Dad, li'l, sis ... noon ... church
(e.g. déan ⇒ déanta / úsáid ⇒ úsáidte)
~[g | r | m | p | c | b] ⇒ (1) ~aim → ~am / ~uir → ~ur (2) ~tha (B) / ~the (S)
The Gramp cab

(e.g. fóghlaim ⇒ fóghlamtha / cuir ⇒ curtha / fág ⇒ fágtha / tuig ⇒ tuigthe)
~[bh | mh] ⇒ ~fa
(e.g. scríobh ⇒ scríofa)

See 'Irregular Verbs', Under 'Grammar Rules' for their verbal adjectives

Prefixes:

There are 3 prefixes that can be used with verbal adjectives:

so (easy) So easy!
in (doable / feasible) In-between easy and hard
do (very difficult / impossible) Doh!

Rules::

'so' and 'do' cause <Lenition> - 'in' does not.
Use a hyphen (pleiscín) only when 2 vowels, or identical consonants, would otherwise meet.

Examples:

Tá sé sothuigthe It's understandable^*
(literally 'easily understood')
Tá sé indéanta It's doable
Misean dodhéanta Impossible Mission

^* 'intuigthe' could also mean 'understandable' but it usually means 'implied'.

Making Comparisons

Equality: Chomh ___ le ____ (English: as ____ as ____) E.g. Tá mise chomh hóg le Síle
Both 'chomh' and 'le' cause a hVowel

Comparitive: níos ___ ná ____ (English: more ____ than ____) E.g. Tá Seán níos airde ná Pól

Superlative: an rud is ____ (English: the ___est thing) E.g. Is é Seán an duine is airde sa rang
or: an X is ____ <Common Case> E.g. an té is ard glór (the person with the loudest voice)

Use the same word for Comparitive & Superlative.

Rules:
~<vowel> ⇒ No change (e.g. rua ⇒ rua)
~each ⇒ ~í (e.g. díreach ⇒ dírí)
~ach ⇒ ~aí (e.g. salach ⇒ salaí)
~air ⇒ ~ra (e.g. deacair ⇒ deacra)
~úil ⇒ ~úla (e.g. cáiliúil ⇒ cáiliúla)

If none of the above:
B → S + ~e (e.g. leathan ⇒ leithne / fuar ⇒ fuaire)
Also:
~ia~ or ~éa~ ⇒ ~éi~ (e.g. géar ⇒ géire / liath ⇒ léithe)
~ea~ ⇒ ~ei~ or ~i~ (e.g. deas ⇒ deise / beag ⇒ bige)
~ío~ ⇒ ~í~ (e.g. fíor ⇒ fíre)
~io~ or ~iu~ ⇒ ~i~ (e.g. fionn ⇒ finne / fliuch ⇒ fliche)
~eann ⇒ ~ne (leatheann ⇒ leitheann ⇒ níos leithne)

Exceptions:

beag (small) / níos lú / is lú breá (fine) / níos breátha / is breátha dócha (probable) / níos dóichí / is dóichí fada (long) / níos faide / is faide furasta (easy) / níos fusa / is fusa ionúin (beloved) / níos ansa / is ansa maith (good) / níos fearr / is fearr mór (big) / níos mó / is mó olc / go dona (bad) / níos measa / is measa te (hot) / níos teo / is teo

Adjectives in Genitive Case

Mutations: Genetive Case

If noun is Male:
- Lenition
- B ⇒ S (unless ~vowel)
  (e.g. carr dubh ⇒ doras an chairr dhuibh)
- ~ach ⇒ ~aigh / ~each ⇒ ~igh
  (e.g. fad an bhóthair dhírigh)
If noun is Female:
- ~ach ⇒ ~aí / ~each ⇒ ~í
  (e.g. salach ⇒ salaí / díreach ⇒ dírí)
- Broad consonant ⇒ +i
- ~e suffix
  (e.g. an bróg mhór ⇒ iall na bróige móire)
- If 2 vowels in the middle, change:
  ~éa~ ⇒ ~éi~ (e.g. géar ⇒ géire),
  ~ea~ ⇒ ~ei~ or ~i~ (e.g. deas ⇒ deise / beag ⇒ bige),
  ~ia~ ⇒ ~éi~ (e.g. liath ⇒ léithe),
  ~ío~ ⇒ ~í~ (e.g. fíor ⇒ fíre)
  ~io~ or ~iu~ ⇒ ~i~ (e.g. fionn ⇒ finne / fliuch ⇒ fliche)
- ~úil ⇒ ~úla
~[l,n,r,mh]: ~~short vowel~~ in 2nd syllable + ln ⇒ ll
(1: álainn ⇒ álainn = álnn. 2: 'lnn' like 'ln' → áill. 3: Fem. so B + i & ~e suffix → áille)
Plurals:
- No Lenition or Eclipsis (na fir bheaga ⇒ teach na bhfhear beag)
- Match common case. Check the noun's gen. plural ending:
  If common single, adjective = common single.
  If common plural, adjective = common plural.
  (e.g. stíl na mbróg deas / na daoine suimiúla)
- If female, plural suffix on the adj. only if it's on the gen. noun

Prepositions

Réamhfhocail

Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun and another word in the sentence.

Prepositions can cause mutations to their following noun:

Preposition (on its own):
Always mutates (as indicated below).

Preposition + an:
Mutates the following noun (as indicated below) if it starts with b,f,c,g,m,p (Big Flies Can Go More Places)
Also s~ ⇒ ts~ if noun is Feminine & starts with s<vowel> (or s[l|n|r]<vowel>)

Preposition + na:
hVowel only

No change, lenition, hVowel, eclipsis

ag	ag an	at
ar	ar an	on
as	as an	out of
chuig	chuig an	to
de	den	from
do	don	to
fara⁺	faris / farais	beside
faoi	faoin	under
gan	-	without
go	-	to
i	sa	in
idir	idir an	between
ionsar	ionsar an	towards
le	leis an	with
mar	mar an	as
ó	ón	from
roimh	roimh an	before
seachas	-	except
thar	thar an	past
trí	tríd	through
um	um an	about

Legend: (l d e h n * ** *** +)

^l Lenition (h)
^d Changes to d' if followed by a <vowel> or else f<vowel>
^e Eclipsis (urú)
^h hVowel
ⁿ If followed by 'a' or 'ár', add an n to form 1 word. E.g. faoi a ⇒ faoina.
^* Rules for 'ar':
- Only lenite when it means 'on' (e.g. ar bhád / ar bhord vs. ar ball / ar meisce).
- Don't lenite if it's a verbal noun (..ing) that's ongoing (e.g. ar siúl).
- ar a ⇒ arna
^** Rules for 'gan':
- Lenite if noun is on its own (no adjective or preposition after it)
  e.g. .gan chiall / gan ciall ar bith
- Just like prepositions + 'an', Gan lenites nouns staring with b, f, c, g, m, p Big Flies Can Go More Places.
- Don't lenite if it's a verbal noun (e.g. gan capaill a cheannach - without buying a horse).
- Don't lenite these words: pósadh / peaca / moill (without marrying / sin / delay)
^*** Rules for 'idir':
- No lenition if it means distance in space or time (e.g. idir beatha agus bás / idir mise agus tusa). Lenition every other time (e.g. idir bheag agus mhór / idir shúgradh is dáiríre)
⁺ You're more likely to hear 'fara' + a conjugation of 'le'.
E.g. fara liom, fara leat ...

Compound Propositions

Réamhfhocail Comhshuite

Made up of 2 or more words.

Followed by genetive noun

ar aghaidh (opposite)
ar chúl (behind)
ar feadh (for the extent of)
ar fud (throughtout)
ar nós (like - in the way of)
ar son (for the sake of)
de bharr (because of)
de chois (near)
de réir (according to)
i gceann (at the end of)
i gcaitheamh (during)
i gcuideachta (with [people])
i lár (in the middle of)
i láthair (present/here)
i rith (during)
i mbun (in charge of)
i measc (among)
in aice (beside)
in aghaidh (against)
in éadan (against)
os cionn (above)
os comhair (on front of)
le haghaidh (for)
tar éis (after)

Examples:
ar aghaidh na gréine (facing the sun)
tar éis tamaill (after a while)

See the Genetive Case (an Tuisil Ginideach) for more information.

For more on prepositions, see the 'Dative Case' on Tab 3 (Grammar Rules).

Pronouns

Forainmneacha

Pronouns are used to replace nouns. They can be used as the subject or object of a verb, or to show possession.

mé tú (s)é / (s)í muid / sinn sibh (s)iad
(E.g. Is daoine deas iad. / Is mar sin is fearr é)
Emphasis: mise tusa (s)eisean / (s)ise sinne sibhse (s)iadsan
(E.g. Is eisean an gadaí)

Rules:

If you're using 'is' or 'tá', leave the 's' out
(é / í / eisean / ise / iad / iadsan).

If the subject of a verb (the person doing it):
Add the 's (sé / sí / seisean / sise / siad / siadsan)'.
(E.g. Is é ... / Dúirt sé ...)

If the object of a verb (i.e. the person the verb is acting on, or is linked to):
tú ⇒ thú / tusa ⇒ thusa (E.g. Aithním thú / Mo náire thú / An Éireannach thú?)

Cé / Ní + hVowel E.g. Cé hé / Ní hiad.

For Identification: Use Emphasised pronoun immediately after 'Is'.
E.g. Is mise an múinteoir. Is iadsan na gadaíthe.

Possessive Pronouns

Forainmeacha Sealbhach

my your his her our your their
mo do a a ár bhur a

	┌ Single ┐		┌ Plural ┐
P. Pronoun	Masc	Fem	Masc	Fem
mo / do	Lenition	Lenition	-	-
a	Lenition	hVowel	Eclipsis	Eclipsis
ár / bhur	-	-	Eclipsis	Eclipsis

Prepositional Pronouns

Forainmneacha Réamhfhoclach

These are when a preposition (on, with, etc.) applies to a pronoun.
E.g. with you / to her / for me.

These mutate as follows (for the most part):
Me: ~am agam
You: ~at agat
He: ~e aige
She: ~i aici
We: ~(a)inn againn
They: ~(a)aibh agaibh
Them: ~ú acu
but they all have small exceptions.

d ⇒ dh after vowels or silent consonants (e.g. Dia dhuit, tabharfaidh sé tuilleadh dhaoibh)

Click a preposition to show its details above:

ag ar as chuig de do faoi fara i idir ionsar le ó roimh thar trí um

EmphasisEmphasis: Change the above propositional pronoun's ending:
Me & You: ~se (S) / ~sa (B) (liomsa, ortsa)
He: ~s ⇒ ~s(e)an or ~s ⇒ ~s-s(e)an (leis-sean, airsean)
She: ~se (S) / ~sa (B) (léise, uirthíse)
We: ~nn ⇒ ~nne (linne, orainne)
You: ~se (libhse, oraibhse)
They: ~san (leosan, orthusan)

Relative Particles

An páirteagal coibhneasta

Relative Particles are a 'conjuction' - they join the main clause and the relative subordinate clause together.
E.g. a, ar, nach, nár

To understand relations, please remember:
The verb's subject^(s) is the person doing the action.
The verb's object^(o) is the thing it is acting on.

Direct Relation

Baint díreach Word Nerd

Definition

It's direct if:

The noun in the main clause is the subject^(s) of the verb^(v) in the relative clause.
E.g. Sin é an fear^(s) a chan^(v) amhráin^(o), inné.
The noun in the main clause is the direct object^(o) of the verb (or verbal noun) in the relative clause.
E.g. Sin é an t-amhráin^(o) a chuala^(v) Seán^(s) inné.
Sin é an leabhair^(o) atá á léamh^(v) ag Sophie^(s).

It's used when:

You are saying 'who' or 'that'.
E.g. An buachaill a bhris na rialacha.
You're using a time expression to connect the 2 clauses (e.g. 'uair' or 'nuair', 't-am', 'dáta', 'oíche', 'lá', etc. ):
E.g. An cuimhin leat an t-am a chuamar go dtí Seville?
It's a question. E.g. 'Cá mhéad' (how much), 'Cá fhad' (how long), cathain / cén uair (when), conas (how), cén fáth (why).
If the first clause uses a preposition (simple or compound), a prepositional pronoun (e.g. from her), or a phrase that functions as an adverb:
E.g. Is ón chomhar creidmheasa a fuair me an airgead.
Is uaidh a cheannaigh mé an ticéad.
Is i bhfad ó shin a chuala mé nuacht fúithí.

Direct Relation Rules:

Direct Relation ('a') always causes Lenition.
But never lenite abair (all tenses) or fuair or tá.

Negative ('nach') always causes Eclipsis

Past tense: 'nach' ⇒ 'nár' + Lenition

Nach & Nár are not used with group 1 of the irregular verbs
(📌Go Get what the BBC Say and Do it - See 'Grammar Rules')

Ambiguity: Using a direct relation can cause confusion. For example:
Sin é an fear a bhuail Seán..
This could mean either:

That is the man who hit Seán
That is the man that Seán hit

Indirect Relation

Baint neamhdhíreach Word Nerd

Definition

It's indirect if:

The noun⁽ⁿ⁾ in the main clause is not the subject^(s) or direct object^(o) of the verb^(v).
E.g. An fhoireann⁽ⁿ⁾ a mbainfidh^(v) a chaptaen^(s) imreoir na bliana^(o).
The noun in the main clause is the indirect object^(io) of the verb (or a verbal noun [~ing in English]) in the relative clause
(Something in the relative clause will link back to it.
Chuir siad páipéar ar an mballa^(io) a bhí mé^(s) ag moladh^(v) dóibh^(o) é a phéinteáil.
or Sin é an fear^(io) a gceannaím^{(v) & (s)} éadaí^(o) uaidh .

It's used when:

You are saying 'whom' or 'which':
An duine a bhí mé a caint leis
You want to removing the ambiguity direct relations can create:
Sin é an fear ar bhuail Seán é .
It's a question beginning with 'Cé' / 'Cad' / 'Céard' + preposition.
E.g. Cé leis a raibh tú ag caint?

Indirect relation Rules:

Indirect Relation ('a') causes Eclipsis
'nach' always causes Eclipsis

Past tense: 'a' ⇒ 'ar' + Lenition
& 'nach' ⇒ 'nár' + Lenition

Nach & Nár are not used with group 1 of the irregular verbs
(📌Go Get what the BBC Say and Do it - see 'Grammar Rules')

More Grammar Rules

Cases

Na Tuisil Word Nerd

Nouns can change their form depending on whether they are the subject or object of the sentence, or if you're indicating possession. These different forms are called cases (tuisil).

Nominative (Common) Case

An Tuiseal Ainmneach (Coitianta)

Used for the subject of a sentence (i.e. the person / thing that is doing the action).
E.g. Tá an cat ag ithe an t-iasc (The cat is eating the fish)

Almost everything in this Quick Reference relates to the common case (unless another case is expressly mentioned).

This case mutates the noun after the article an / na:

	┌ Single ┐		┌ Plural ┐
Article	Masc	Fem	Masc	Fem
an	t-vowel	Lenition ts	-	-
na	-	-	hVowel	hVowel

Prepositions:
In Irish, go dtí and murach, and seachas are always followed by the nominative case.

ℹ Declensions (related info)

Nouns are grouped into 5 different 'declensions'.
Sometimes, its declension affects how it mutates - especially in the Genetive case (tuiseal ginideach).

Indentifying declensions:
1^st declension: Always Male, ending in ~ear / ~éar (and many more)
2^nd declension: Always Female, ending in ~óg / ~eóg (and many more)
3^rd declension: Both genders, ending in ~óir / ~éir / ~áil / ~úil / ~acht
4^th declension: Mostly male, ending in ~vowel / ~ín
5^th declension: Mostly female, ending in ~vowel / ~<slender consonant>

... or look in the dictionary:
foclóir.ie: spéaclaí mpl4 / gloiní fpl4
teanglann.ie - An foclóir Beag: uisce fir4
teanglann.ie - Grammar: uisce...4th DECLENSION

Accusative Case

An Tuiseal Ánsíoch

All languages use this case for the verb's object.
In Irish, the accusative case is identical to the nominative (common) case.
This means the noun doesn't change when it's the object of a verb or verbal noun.

Dative Case

An Tuiseal Tabharthach Word Nerd

Also known as the prepositional case.

It can be used for the indirect object in a sentence, which often has a preposition directly before it.

Triggered by simple prepositions - (e.g. rugadh mé in Éirinn).
It's mostly the same as the common case in modern irish, with just a few hangovers from older irish to remember.

Hangovers from old Irish

Use these mutations after any preposition:

bróg → bróig gan bhróig (without a shoe) bróga → brógaibh i mbrógaibh (in shoes) bos → bois óna bois (from his palm) cailíní → cailíníbh le cailíníbh (with girls) cos → cois ar cois (at the foot) cluas → cluais sa chluais (in the ear) fir → fearaibh le fearaibh (with men) Éire → Éirinn in Éirinn (in Ireland) lámh → láimh sa láimh (in the hand) teach → tigh ar an dtigh (on the house)

Related Info

Although fallen into disuse, the rules for dative were fairly straightforward, including:

2nd Declension (i.e. female) nouns were slenderised (see examples, above)
5th Declension nouns slenderised the genetive form - e.g. Éire^Nominatve → Éireann^Genetive → Éirinn^Dative
Plurals: ~aibh / ~íbh

The dative is the origin of 'os cionn' (the compound preposition - over [head]).

Munster Irish uses dative forms for indefinate plurals - in some places this has replaced the nominative case plural.

Choosing the correct preposition

Preposition	Indicates	Examples
ar	Disadvantage	Múchadh an tóirse orm (the torch went out on me) Bhris mé an charr ar mo Dhaid (I broke the car on my Dad - i.e. to his disadvantage)
de	A part of a definite whole	cuid den airgead (some of the money) beirt de na fir (two of the men)
do	Advangage	Las sí an tine dom (She lit the fire for me) Rinne mé duit é (I did it for you)
	An indirect object	Thug mé an airgead duit (I gave the money to you)
	An indefinite relationship	cara dom (a friend of mine)
le	An indefinite relationship	dearfúir le Pól (a sister of paul's). Note: the definite equivalent, 'Paul's sister', would be deirfúir Phóil (genetive case - see below)
le	Intent	Tá e-phost le scríobh agam (I have to write an email)

Dative Mutations:
See Prepositions on Tab 2 (Elements)

Genitive Case

An Tuiseal Ginideach

Denotes posession, or something to do with a noun.
If the translaton includes 'of' or 'of the', it is in the genetive case.
The article 'an' or 'na' often appears before the last noun.

Triggers for Gen. Case

If 2 nouns in a row, the 2nd one is in the genetive case (e.g. Coláiste Mhuire [Máire] / radharc mara [muir])
After quantity words (cuid, mórán, neart, roinnt, beagán, a lán) (e.g. mo chuid airgid / méid a bhfórsa póilíneachta [the size of their police force])
After chun, cois, fearacht (in the manner of), tar éis, timpeall & trasna (e.g. bhog a peann go tapa trasna an leathanaigh [leathanach])
If the object of a verbal noun ('~ing' in English) (e.g. ag glanadh na fuinneoige / bhfuinneog (cleaning the window / windows) / bás a fháil [to die] → ag fáil báis [dying])
(but not if it has an adjective after it or if a quantity word goes before it. E.g. ag glanadh fuinneog salach / ag glanadh roint fuinneoga)
After compound prepositions (e.g. i lár na gcathrach [cathair])

Rules

All nouns mutate in Gen. Case (see below)
All posessing nouns are lenited - even feminine ones.
(e.g. Dath theach Sheáin,
Scoil Mhuire)
All adjectives mutate in Gen. Case: B ⇒ S.
Masc. adjs also <Lenite>.
Fem. adjs: ~e
(e.g. i lár na farraige móire)

How to form the Genetive Case

Genetive case mutates the noun:

Declensions	1	2	3	4	5
Gender	m	f	both	mostly m	mostly f
Identified by (in nominative case)	~ear, ~éar [many more]	~óg, ~eog [many more]	~acht, ~áil, ~úil, ~éir, ~óir	~vowel, ~ín	~vowel, ~slender Con.
Final Consonants	B ⇒ S	S ⇒ B	B ⇒ S	-	Always Broad (S ⇒ B or add broad)
Extra mutations	~ach ⇒ ~aigh ~each ⇒ ~igh ~ia~ ⇒ ~éi~	~e ~lann ⇒ ~lainne ~óg ⇒ ~óige	~a ~éir ⇒ ~éara ~(e)óir ⇒ ~(e)ora	-	-
Plural Genitive	Common single (except ~a or ~aí = common plural)	Common plural but body parts are usually singular	Common plural	Common plural	Common plural

The article an / na / a also mutates the noun (in every case):

Common Case
	┌ Single ┐		┌ Plural ┐
Article	Masc	Fem	Masc	Fem
an	t-vowel	Lenition ts	-	-
na	-	-	hVowel	hVowel

Genetive Case
	┌ Single ┐		┌ Plural ┐
Article	Masc	Fem	Masc	Fem
an / a	Lenition ts	-	-	-
na / a	-	hVowel	Eclipsis	Eclipsis

Exceptions: The following never take the genetive form:

Numbers e.g. teach an triú fear
Female first-names, if followed by a surname or adjective e.g. 'teach Bhríde' vs. 'teach Bhríd Seoige'
Objects of verbal nouns, if followed by an adjective e.g. 'ag glanadh na fuinneoige' vs. 'ag glanadh fuinneog salach'
Objects of verbal nouns, if preceded by a quantity e.g. 'ag ól ndeochanna' vs. 'ag ól cúpla deoch'

Double / Multiple Genetives:

This normally only happens if one or all of the genetives in indefinite (e.g. fear ionaid na hOllscoile - Man of the place (i.e. Representative) of the University)

If the last one in the chain of genetives is definite, you'd normally avoid multiple genetive nouns by only changing that last one - all other ones would be in the 'functional genetive' (i.e. common case but <lenited>) - e.g. teach mhac Sheáin (not 'mhic').

You can have long chains of nouns in the functional genetive (e.g. dath fhuinneog theach mhac Sheáin).

Vocative Case

An Tuiseal Gairmeach

Used when directly addressing someone or something. Usually preceded by the particle 'a' and followed by a name or title.

Male: a <Lenition> / hVowel + <Slender Consonant> (e.g. a Sheáin)
Female: a <Lenition> / hVowel (e.g. a Mháire)
Plural: a <Lenition> / hVowel (applied to common case plural. E.g. a chailíní)

Exceptions:

All: Do not lenite t~, d~ or s~.

Plurals: 1st declension with slender plurals in the common case: <Lenition> + ~a (e.g. fir ⇒ a fheara)

Examples: a chárde, a mhac, a mhúinteoir, a Mhamaí, a Dhaidí, a dhaoine uaisle.

Verbs

Regular verbs

Warning: This Regular Verb feature is still under development.  It is NOT ready for use

Conjugation of Regular verbs

(mé)
(tú)
(sé/sí)
(muid/sinn)
(sibh)
(siad)
(passive)

(vb. noun. Gen.: ) (vb. adjective)

Present Past Future Conditional Subjunctive (Present) Subjunctive (Past) Imperitive

1 Syllable Verbs

2 Syllable Verbs

Irregular verbs

Briathra Neamhrialta

11 Irish verbs do not follow the standard conjugation patterns. These are in 2 groups:

Conjugation of irregular verbs

(mé)
(tú)
(sé/sí)
(muid/sinn)
(sibh)
(siad)
(passive)

(vb. noun. Gen.: ) (vb. adjective)

Present Past Past Habitual Future Conditional Subjunctive (Present) Subjunctive (Past) Imperitive

Group 1:
téigh fáigh bí feic abair déan

Always use 'nach' instead of 'nár' in the past tense
Always use indirect relative (eclipsis) in the past tense

Go Get what the BBC Say and do it

Group 2:
tar beir ith tabhair clois / cluin (ulster)
(no group rules)

Come, grab something to eat and give it hear (here)

Broad or Slender

Leathan nó Caol

The rules are slightly different for verbs (more exceptions):

Single Syllable:
Broad if last syllable is á, ó, or ú or if ending is ~áil or ~áin.
Slender if last syllable is e or i (with no 'á' before it)

2 Syllables:
Broad if ~aigh or ~ail.
Slender if ~igh or ~il, ~ir, or ~is.

Tenses

Verbs can change to indicate when the action happens. The different forms of this are called tenses (aimsir).

Present Tense

An Aimsir Láithreach

Describes actions that are happening now, or are always true.

It can be formed by using Tá with the Verbal Noun, preposition, or pronoun.

(E.g. Tá an fear ag ól.
Tá an fear ar meisce.
Tá mo mháthair anseo / Tá leabhar agam) `

You also give orders in the present tense (e.g. Féach anseo). See the Imperative Mood, below, for more information.

Direct relations: Tá ⇒ atá (Cé hé an fear atá ag tiomáint an chairr)

Personal Endings: ~(a)im (I) / ~(a)imid (We)

Negatives:
Ní + hVowel / <Lenition> (verbs only)
Ná + hVowel
Nach + <Eclipsis>

Questions: An / Nach + ~~n-vowel~~ + <Eclipsis>

Historical Present

You may sometimes see the 'historical present' being used in literature, to describe past events in a more gripping way:
E.g. ~(e)as Ritheas sé isteach (he runs in)

Present Habitual Tense

An Aimsir Gnáthláithreach

Describes actions that happen regularly (sometimes / often / always / never).
Also used for general, timeless statements (e.g. snámhann éisc san abhainn)

It is formed in 1 of 2 ways:

Changing Tá → Bíonn + Verbal Noun (e.g. Bíonn muid ag caint)
Selecting from the present tense conjugation of the verb and applying the below changes - e.g. Ólaim caife

'Bíonn mé' is the origin of the phrase 'I do be ...', which is only heard in Ireland.

Forming the Habitual Present:

1 syllable: ~ ⇒ ~(e)ann (tóg → tógann)
1 sbl: ~ígh ⇒ ~íonn (suígh → suíonn)
1 sbl: ~[á | o | ó | ú] igh ⇒ ~~igh~~ + ~nn (feoigh → feonn)
1 sbl: ~igh ⇒ ~ann (léigh → léann)

2 sbls: ~ái [ l | n ] ⇒ i + ~ann (sábháil → sábhálann)
2 sbls: ~igh ⇒ ~(a)íonn (éirigh → éiríonn)
2 sbls: ~ai [ l | n | s ] ⇒ ai + ~aíonn (oscail → osclaíonn)
2 sbls: ~aim ⇒ ~íonn (foghlaim → foghlaimíonn)
2 sbls: ~i [ l | n | r | s ] ⇒ i + ~íonn (inis → insíonn)

Personal endings:
1 syllable: Root verb + ~(a)im (I) / ~(a)imid (We) 2 syllables: Habitual form's ~onn ⇒ ~m / ~mid

Negative:
Ní + <Lenition> of habitual form
Nach + <Eclipsis> of habitual form

Questions:
An / Nach + ~~n-vowel~~ + <Eclipsis>

Exceptions:

When something is ongoing, or is always true, use the simple present (tá instead of bíonn) - e.g. Tá mé i mo chónaí i ... / Tá an spéir gorm
For direct relations: bíonn ⇒ bhíos (Cé hé an fear a bhíos ag tiomáint an chairr)

Never: Use Go deo (always) with the negative.
E.g. Is báisteach go deo é - Níl deireadh go deo leis! (it's always raining - it never ends!)

Past Tense

An Aimsir Caite

Describes actions that happened in the past.

Rules:

(a) <Lenition> of all Verbs,
(b) f ⇒ d'fh
(c) <Vowel> ⇒ d'<Vowel>

(d) is ⇒ ba / b'<Vowel> (but not for é / í / iad).
(reported) gur <Lenition> - but if the next word starts with a vowel, add 'bh' - e.g. gurbh é/í/iad)

(e) a / cá / mura / sula ⇒ ~r (ar / cár / murar / sular)

Personal Endings:
1 syllable: ~(e)amar [we] / ~(e)adar [they]
2 sbls: ~(a)íomar [we] / ~(a)íodar [they]

Negative: Níor d' <Lenition>

Questions: Ar / Nár d' <Lenition>

Never: Ríamh (E.g. Níor chuala mé ríamh faoi sin.)

Habitual Past Tense

An Aimsir Gnáthchaite

Also known as the imperfect tense (an aimsir neamhfhoirfe), this describes actions that used to happen in the past.
Often preceeded with 'gach' (e.g. gach uair dá dtéadh sé - every time he'd go)

How to form the habitual past tense:
1. <Lenition> / f ⇒ d'fh
2. ~~~igh~~ + mutation (see below)


-	1 Syllable	1 or 2 sbls ~igh / ~aim	2 sbls ~ái [l\|n\|r\|s]	2 sbls ~ai [l\|n\|r\|s]	2 sbls ~i [l\|n\|r\|s]
Sampla	Rith	Suigh / Tosaigh	Sábháil	Oscail	Inis
Mé	~(a)inn	~ínn	~~~i~~~ + ~ainn	~~~ai~~~ + ~aínn	~~~i~~~ + ~ínn
Tú	~t(e)á	~íteá	~teá	~~~ai~~~ + ~aíteá	~~~i~~~ + ~íteá
Sé / Sí	~(e)adh	~íodh	~~~i~~~ + ~adh	~~~ai~~~ + ~aíodh	~~~i~~~ + ~íodh
Sinn / Muid	~(a)imis	~ímis	~~~i~~~ + ~aimis	~~~ai~~~ + ~aímis	~~~i~~~ + ~ímis
Sibh	~(e)adh	~íodh	~~~i~~~ + ~adh	~~~ai~~~ + ~aíodh	~~~i~~~ + ~íodh
Siad	~(a)idís	~ídís	~~~i~~~ + ~aidís	~~~ai~~~ + ~aídís	~~~i~~~ + ~ídís
Saor briathar	~t(a)í	~ítí	~tí	~~~ai~~~ + ~aítí	~~~i~~~ + ~ítí

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Perfect Tense

An aimsir fhoirfe

When an action occurred earlier - focusing on the result now.
(English: subject + have/has + past participle. E.g. I have gone)

Auxiliary Verb (Bí) + Object + Verbal Adjective + ag + Subject
E.g. Bhí an obair déanta ag Síle (The work was done by Síle)

See 'Adjectives', in Tab 2 ('Elements'), for more information on verbal adjectives.

Future Perfect Tense

An aimsir fháistineach fhoirfe

When an action occurred earlier - focusing on the result in the future.
(English: subject + will be + past participle. E.g. It will be done)

Future of Auxiliary Verb (Bí): Beidh + Object + Verbal Adjective + ag + Subject
E.g. Beidh an obair déanta ag Síle (The work will be done by Síle)

See 'Adjectives', in Tab 2 ('Elements'), for more information on verbal adjectives.

Future Tense

An Aimsir Fháistineach

Describes actions that will happen in the future.

Rules:

1 syllable:
~igh ⇒ ~f(a)idh (seas → seasfaidh)

2 syllables:
~ái [ l | n ] ⇒ i + ~faidh (sábháil → sábhálfaidh)
~igh ⇒ ~eoidh / ~óidh (dírigh → díreoidh / gortaigh ⇒ gortóidh)
~ai [ l | n | s ] ⇒ ai + ~óidh (oscail → osclóidh)
~aim ⇒ ~eoidh (foghlaim → foghlaimeoidh)
~i [ l | n | r | s ] ⇒ i + ~eoidh (inis → inseoidh)

Is: (reported) go <Eclipsis>

Personal Endings (Imperative - Let's): ~(a)imis / future muid

Negative: Ní <Lenition> ~~<hVowel>~~ | Nach <Eclipsis>

Question: An / Nach <Eclipsis> ~~<n-vowel>~~

Never: Choíche (e.g. Ní rachaidh mé ann choíche).

Exceptions:

Avoid using the future tense after má - use the habitual present instead. E.g. má bíonn
You can use the simple present tense of Bí (Tá) for the future - if it's certain to happen. E.g. Táimid ag dul go Cancún, i Meicsiceo, amárach.

Moods

Moods affect verbs. They are used to show how what you're saying should be regarded (a fact, command, wish, uncertainty). They can be in any tense where they make sense.

Imperative Mood

Modh Oirdaitheach Word Nerd

For making orders (ordering people around). Only works in present and future tenses.

Uses the base form of the verb but adds a different ending for plurals.

To command one person, use the base form of the verb. E.g.:

Cur on peann ar an tábla.
Éist leis an cheol!
Taispeáin dom do phictiúr.

If you want to include yourself (e.g. 'Let's go'), use the plural with the personal ending ~(a)imis.

For negative imperatives, use Ná + hVowel + imperative form

Plurals:

1 syllable: ~ ⇒ ~(a)igí (tóg → tógaigí)
1 sbl: ~h ⇒ ~í (suígh → suígí / léigh → léigí)

2 sbls: ~ái [ l | n ] ⇒ i + ~(a)igí (sábháil → sábhálaigí)
2 sbls: ~igh ⇒ ~igí (éirigh → éirigí)
2 sbls: ~ai [ l | n | s ] ⇒ ai + ~aígí (oscail → osclaígí)
2 sbls: ~i [ l | m | n | r | s ] ⇒ i + ~ígí (inis → insígí)

Personal endings: ~(a)imis / ~(a)idís

Technically, these are future imperative endings. ~(a)imis is how you say "let's ...".
Present imperative personal endings exist - ~(a)ím (me) and ~(a)ímid (us).
The first, ~(a)ím, often doesn't make much sense. The 2nd, ~(a)ímid, is more forceful than ~(a)imis. It's a command, not a suggestion.

E.g. A priest, in mass, might say 'seasaímid' (we will stand) - not 'seasaigí' (stand up). He includes himself (even if he is already standing up) to soften the command slightly, but this still carries more authority than 'seasadís' (why don't ye stand).

Negatve: Ná + hVowel + imperative form

Conditional Mood

An Modh Coinniollach

For things that only happen if something else does beforehand.

Step 1:

Lenition (Séimhiú)
f ⇒ d'fh
<vowel> ⇒ d'<vowel>

Step 2:

1 syllable: ~gh ⇒ ~ending (léifinn)
2 sbls: ~(a)igh ⇒ ~ending (éireófá)
2 sbls: ~ái[ l | n ] ⇒ i + ~ending (sábhálódh)
2 sbls: ~ai[ l | n | s ] ⇒ ai + ~ending (sábhálódh)
2 sbls: ~i[ l | n | s ] ⇒ i + ~ending (inseodís)

Endings
Conjugation	1 syllable	2 syllables
Me (mé)	~finn	~óinn / ~eoinn
You (tú)	~feá	~ófá / ~eofá
He/she (sé / sí)	~f(e)adh	~ódh / ~eodh
Us (muid / sinn)	~f(a)imís	~óimís / ~eoimís
You (sibh)	~f(e)adh	~ódh / ~eodh
They (siad)	~f(a)idís	~óidís / ~eoidís
Passive (saorbhriathar)	~f(a)í	~ófaí / ~eofaí

Rules:

Is ⇒ Ba | (reported) go <eclipsis>
If: má <lenition> | Unlikly if: dá <eclipsis>
Negatives: Ní d' <lenition>
Nach <eclipsis> + he/she ending
Question: An / Nach ~~<lenition> d' <n-vowel>~~ + Eclipsis + he/she ending

Related vocabulary:

dá mbéadh X béadh Y ... (if X, Y would be ...)

dá gcuirfeá ar an mbord é, thitfeadh é (if it was put on the table, it would fall)

dá mba rud é go raibh ... dtéatach mé ... (if it was a thing that ... I could ...)

Ba mhaith liom ... (I would like ...)

Subjunctive Mood

An Modh Foshuiteach

Used for wishes / prayers, to express uncertainty (after mura), or to express purpose (i.e. actions that have not yet occurred).

Begin with::

Making wishes / prayers:
go + <Eclipsis> | nár + <Lenition>

Expressing uncertainty:
mura (if not) + <Eclipsis>

Expressing purpose:
go / sula (before) + <Eclipsis>

Negative:
nár (that not) + <Lenition>

Endings:

1 syllable: ~ ⇒ ~e or ~a (clois/seas → go gcloise/seasa)
1 sbl: ~<fada>igh ⇒ ~~~igh~~ (léigh → go lé)
1 sbl: ~ígh ⇒ ~gh (suígh → go suí)

2 sbls: ~igh ⇒ ~í (éirigh → go n-éirí)
2 sbls: ~áil ⇒ ~ála (sábháil → go sábhála)
2 sbls: ~áin ⇒ ~áine (tiomáin → go dtiomáine)
2 sbls: ~ ⇒ ~(a)í (freastal → go bhfreastalaí)
2 sbls: ~ai [ l | n | r ] ⇒ ai + ~aí (oscail → go n-osclaí)

Passive Voice

An fhaí chéasta / An saorbhriathar

Can be used in all tenses and moods.

What is the passive voice?

Voices can be Active (an fhaí gníomhach) or Passive (an fhaí chéasta).

When the subject of the verb is doing the action, it's active. E.g. Bhris Seán an ghloine (Sean broke the glass).
When the subject is being acted upon, its in the passive voice. E.g. Briseadh an ghloine (the glass has been broken).

The passive voice says something is/was/will be done but not who does it, which is why it's also known as the autonomous form of the verb (an saorbhriathar).

In English, you can say "The glass was broken by Sean" but in Irish you cannot say who did it - just that it was done.
E.g. Briseadh an ghloine (the glass has been broken).

Note: This can also translate to 'the glass is broken' but it is subtly different to the verbal adjective ('Tá an ghloine briste').

The verbal adjective focuses on the state of the object after the action has taken place, whereas the passive voice focuses on the action being carried out.

How to form the passive voice

All verbs mutate in the same way (with extra changes for the past tense and conditional) - and the endings change, depending on the tense.

Past Tense

Step 1: ~~Lenition~~, d', ~~Eclipsis~~
Step 2: Mutate the verb and add the appropriate ending, as indicated in the table below:

Syllables	Mutation	Ending
1	~gh	~(e)adh
2	~ái [ l \| n ] ⇒ i	~adh
2	~~~igh~~	~íodh
2	~i [ l \| n \| s ] ⇒ i	~íodh

E.g. Bris ⇒ Briseadh, Dún ⇒ Dúnadh, Ullmhaigh ⇒ Ullmhaíodh, Codail ⇒ codlaíodh

Present Tense

Mutate the verb and add the appropriate ending, as indicated in the table below:

Syllables	Mutation	Ending
1	~gh	~t(e)ar
2	~ái [ l \| n ] ⇒ i	~tar
2	~~~igh~~	~ítear
2	~i [ l \| n \| s ] ⇒ i	~ítear

E.g. Bris ⇒ Bristear, Dún ⇒ Dúntar, Ullmhaigh ⇒ Ullmhaítear, Codail ⇒ Codlaítear

Future Tense

Mutate the verb and add the appropriate ending, as indicated in the table below:

Syllables	Mutation	Ending
1	~gh	~f(e)ar
2	~ái [ l \| n ] ⇒ i	~far
2	~~~aigh~~	~ófar
2	~~~igh~~	~eofar
2	~ai [ l \| n \| s ] ⇒ ai	~ófar
2	~i [ l \| n \| s ] ⇒ i	~eofar

E.g. Bris ⇒ Brisfear, Dún ⇒ Dúnfar, Ullmhaigh ⇒ Ullmhófar, Codail ⇒ Codlófar

Conditional Mood

Step 1: Lenition (as usual)
Step 2: Mutate the verb and add the appropriate ending, as indicated in the table below:

Syllables	Mutation	Ending
1	~gh	~f(a)í
2	~ái [ l \| n ] ⇒ i	~faí
2	~~~aigh~~	~ófaí
2	~~~igh~~	~eofaí
2	~ai [ l \| n \| s ] ⇒ ai	~ófaí
2	~i [ l \| n \| s ] ⇒ i	~eofaí

E.g. Bris ⇒ Brisfí, Dún ⇒ Dúnfaí, Ullmhaigh ⇒ Ullmhófaí, Codail ⇒ Codlófaí

Subjunctive Mood

Negative Subjunctive:
Convert to the normal subjunctive and use nár + <Lenition>. E.g. nár ordaí

Positive Subjunctive:
Mutate the verb and add the appropriate ending, as indicated in the table below:

Syllables	Mutation	Ending
1	~gh	~t(e)ar
2	~ái [ l \| n ] ⇒ (no change)	~tear
2	~~~igh~~	~ítear
2	~i [ l \| n \| s ] ⇒ i	~ítear

E.g. Bris ⇒ Bristear, Dún ⇒ Dúntar, Ullmhaigh ⇒ Ullmhaítear, Codail ⇒ Codlaítear

Imperative Mood

Negative Imperative:
Use ná and the verb. E.g. ná foghlaim

Positive Imperative:
Mutate the verb and add the appropriate ending, as indicated in the table below:

Syllables	Mutation	Ending
1	~gh	~t(e)ar
2	~ái [ l \| n ] ⇒ (no change)	~tear
2	~~~igh~~	~ítear
2	~i [ l \| n \| s ] ⇒ i	~ítear

E.g. Bris ⇒ Bristear, Dún ⇒ Dúntar, Ullmhaigh ⇒ Ullmhaítear, Codail ⇒ Codlaítear

Choose a tense, below to see instructions

Past Present Future Conditional Subjunctive Imperative

Irish Grammar Quick Reference

Glossary

Constructs, Concepts & Vocabulary

Key Elements of Irish Grammar

More Grammar Rules

Conjugation of Regular verbs

Conjugation of irregular verbs

Past Tense

Present Tense

Future Tense

Conditional Mood

Subjunctive Mood

Imperative Mood